Understanding Human Behaviour

UNIT 4 Objectives UNDERSTANDING HUMAN BEHAVIOUR Indian Environment: The Changing Scenario After going through this unit you should be able to understand: †¢ importance of understanding human behaviour. Structure 4. 1 4. 2 4. 3 4. 4 4. 5 4. 6 4. 7 4. 8 4. 9 4. 10 4. 11 4. 12 4. 13 4. 14 4. 15 4. 6 Introduction Models to Understand Human Behaviour Implications for the Organisation Personality Determinants of Personality Type and Trait Approaches to Personality Theories of Personality Importance of Personality Attitudes Attitudes and Organisation Values Socialisation's Influence on Personality, Values and Attitudes Schein Socialisation Model Summary Self-Assessment Questions Further Readings 4. 1 INTRODUCTION It is very essential to understand human behaviour in today's world as the existence of the organisation depends op the employees/individuals.Without understanding human behaviour it is very difficult to work in an organisation. In order to understand human behaviour let us se e how the perception of human being has changed from time to time. All organisations are composed of individuals, with different personality, attitudes, values, perception, motives, aspirations and abilities. The main reason to understand behaviour is that individuals are different. No two individuals are similar. In the early studies, theories of organisation and management treated people as though they were the same; scientific management was based on the similarities among workers, not the differences.In contrast, modern theories of human behaviour are based upon the differences among people and how those differences can affect the organisation. Individual differences are many for example some employees are motivated to work and some are not. This can be due to several reasons, and can be known by further reading the unit. Before we proceed to understand human behaviour, it is better to know what the term `behaviour' means. Behaviour can be defined as a response/s which is observ ed directly/indirectly. Direct observation is possible by studying the responses of people to a work environment.Indirect observations are decision 5 Social Processes and Issues making processes and attitudes, in terms of results or how people describe them verbally. Human behaviour is very much unpredictable. In behaviour we cannot assume one set pattern of behaviour. Lavitt classified behaviour as: (i) Caused behaviour, (ii) Motivated behaviour, (iii) Goal oriented behaviour. From these observations it can be understood that behaviour is a dependent factor. By understanding behaviour one can predict, direct, change and control behaviour of individuals or group.There are generally four basic assumptions regarding nature of people: individual differences, a whole person, caused behaviour (motivation) and value of the person (human dignity). In an organisational set up it is essential for managers to understand behaviour. as they are constantly with people, interacting with them in t erms of communication (either written or oral) in terms of work (either by specifying the work and getting things done). Understanding past behaviour is important for developing effective human skills, and it also provides a framework for predicting behaviour.It also gives an idea to managers as to how behaviour is similar in certain circumstances and changing in changing environmental conditions. Another skill which an effective manager or leader needs is the ability to direct, change and control behaviour. Managers have to understand that there are-going to be individual differences among the employees, as no individual is similar to other. Each individual is unique by themselves. Then one has to understand that each individual has to be taken care of as a whole person by taking care of. his needs as well as training and making him up to date in terms of work.Ultimately human beings have to be treated with respect only then you can expect effective performance. With the following descriptions you will be able to understand the concept better. Dan's analyses the nature of people in terms of four assumptions. 1. Individual Differences Behaviour is the result of interaction between individual characteristics and the characteristics of the environment in which the behaviour occurs. Each person has a unique combination of characteristics. Some of these characteristics are present from birth; others develop over time. These can be called as inherited and learned characteristics.Although there are some inherited Table 1: Learned Characteristics and its Effect on Behaviour Characteristics Tolerance for conflict Relative importance of Behaviour Perceived role conflict Expressed job satisfaction Relationship found Less role conflict with greater tolerance for conflict â€Å"Extrinsic Managers† expressed less job satisfaction extrinsic versus intrinsic rewards Stronger work ethic associated with greater attendance High general interest of performance diversity a ssociated with better performance More stress with emphasis on external locus of control Value or work ethicAttendance Diversity of interests Salary based measure 6 Locus of control Experienced job stress characteristics, but these are very few, and not so significant. Learned characteristics are very important. Individual differences can be because of environment, personal and psychological factors. It is also due to physical and social factors. Learned characteristics are acquired as people grow, develop and interact with their environments. This is depicted by Table 1. `Environmental factors' are characteristics of the broader environment such as economic conditions, social and. ultural norms, and political factors that can affect the individuals behaviour. Personal factors include physical and personal attributes e. g. , age, sex, race, education and abilities, psychological factors are less observable. They are mental characteristics and attributes such as values, attitudes, pe rsonality and aptitudes that affect behaviour through complex psychological processes. These are studied, in the subsequent units. All aspects of the physical world that can be seen, heard, felt, smelled or touched are part of the physical environment of behaviour.The social environment of an individual includes relationships with family, friends, co-workers, supervisors and subordinates and membership in groups such as unions. The behaviour of others (as distinct from the individuals relationship with them) is also part of an individual's social environment. Any ‘norms, rules, laws or reward systems that originate with other individuals or groups help to form an individual's social environment. 2. A Whole Person Indian Environment: The Changing Scenario When an employee works in an organisation, the organisation takes care of that person by making him effective, as a worker and as a person. . Caused Behaviour (Motivation) People's behaviour is need based. By fulfilling these needs he is motivated positively and there occurs effective performance. So the management in the organisation has to take care of these needs in order to have an effective performance. The management can show them how certain actions will increase their need fulfilment and if not; how it decreases their need fulfilment. 4. Value of the Person (Human Dignity) People have to be treated with respect and as individuals and they can not be treated like machines as how scientific management use to treat them.By recognising them and treating them with uniqueness the value of the person gets increased. By this we can understand how the concept of treating human beings from machines to human capitals have evolved. If one accepts the fact that human skill development is necessary then managers and leaders must have necessary understanding in order to influence the behaviour of other people. It was felt that the managers acquire three levels of expertise. Firstly they have to understand the p ast and current behaviour, so that they are able to predict behaviour and than they learn to direct change, and control behaviour. . 2 MODELS TO UNDERSTAND HUMAN BEHAVIOUR Early classical approaches made the assumptions that people are naturally lazy and self-serving, neutral, or positive and self-motivated. In simpler terms they need to be pushed and controlled and kept under surveillance, never to be trusted to put in a good day's work by themselves. Economic rewards were the only one considered, and close autocratic supervision was suggested. Systems and contingency theorists viewed people as adaptable and felt that much of behaviour was learned and not attributable to predispositions to be negative or positive. Social Processes and Issues Likert, Mc Gregor and Bennis who developed and extended the findings of humanrelations theorists had a positive view of human nature. Employees were seen as striving for personal and social well-being. If left alone, they would work hard for th e intrinsic satisfaction of a job well done- The emphasis was on democratic decision making and leadership. Jobs were to be challenging and allowed the individual employee to be creative. Models of Human Behaviour Psychoanalytic Model: Freudian approach depends on conflict model of humans.By using clinical techniques of free association and psychotherapy Freud felt that behaviour is not always consciously explained. â€Å"Unconscious† is the major factor which guides the individual's behaviour. Freud felt that the individual's behaviour depends on three factors: (i) id, (ii) Ego and (iii) Super ego. Id: By Id it means pleasure. To certain degree of having Id in an individual is constructive but may also lead to destructive tendencies like being aggressive, dominating, fighting and generally destroy. This kind of instinctive is more dominating in childhood.But once individuals develop and mature they learn to control the id. But it is always unconscious. Throughout life the `i d' becomes important source of thinking and behaving. Ego: Ego represents `conscious' stage in one's behaviour. Though Id comes in conflict with ego, the ego depends on the super ego. Superego: It represents â€Å"conscience†. An individual is not aware of the superego's functioning. The conscience is dependent on two factors that is cultural values and moral of a society. Superego's development depends mostly on parent's influence.Once the child grows up the child will unconsciously identifies with parents value and morals. There is always tussle between id, ego and superego. The degree of each of them varies from person to person. So the variations in individual's behaviour can be better understood with the help of this model. But the modern theories have severely criticised this theory as it is not based on any empirical facts and as such it can not be accepted in totality. But the concept of â€Å"unconscious† is a significant contribution in understanding specific behaviour of humans. Existential Model: This model is not scientifically based.It's base is literature and philosophy. The existentialists believe that the depersonalising effects of this environment forces individuals to make their own destiny. So the individuals shape their own identity and make their â€Å"existence† meaningful and worthwhile to themselves. This is more true and happening in today's urbanisation. Because people have become so materialistic and busy, they do not have time for traditional values and norms and it becomes impractical sometimes to follow them. Existential model is, especially true when you are employed in today's world.Though this model is not scientific it can be definitely be used in understanding human behaviour. Internal vs. External Determinants of Behaviour Environment plays a major role in shaping behaviour and genetic endowment and personality development is influenced by our historical heritage. 8 Personality vs the Environment Both p ersonality and situational variables must be taken into account in order to explain an individual's behaviour but a focus on the environment is as important or perhaps slightly more important than focusing on personality traits.Indian Environment: The Changing Scenario Cognition vs the Environment To understand one's behaviour all we have to know is the individual's past responses to similar (stimulus) situations and the rewards or punishments that followed that response. There are two models which come out of these approaches: 1. Behaviouristic Model: In this model the behaviour is dependent on two factors i. e. , stimulus and response. Learning occurs with this kind of model. Pavlov and Watson with their research felt that behaviour can be best understood by stimulus and response.Behaviourist model is represented as: S – R (Stimulus-Response) 2. Cognitive Model: S-OR-R. This model emphasises the positive and free-will factors of human beings and uses concepts such as expect ancy, demand and incentive. Tolman with his experiments found that the basis of learning as of `expectancy' which is understood as one particular event leading to a particular consequence i. e. , goal. Human behaviour is based on these goals. The cognitive model is represented as: S – O – R (Stimulus-Organism-Response model) Both approaches see learning and the environment as having a major impact on behaviour.From these different approaches it can be said that: i) Behaviour is caused by instincts, genetic background and personality traits that are formed at an early age. Change is very difficult for the individual and that one's capacity is severely limited. Behaviour is mostly learned through our interactions with the environment. Present events rather than past events are important. Even though there are some limitations on. one's capacities, one is capable of great amounts of change. ii) 4. 3 IMPLICATIONS FOR THE ORGANISATION Behviour of individuals is caused, and follows a pattern, because of this, behaviour is unpredictable.Study of behaviour is however, rewarding and necessary for management. It is doubtful whether the manager can perform his tasks satisfactorily without developing a fair degree of understanding of the people around him. Any attempt to learn why people behave as they do in organisations requires some understanding of individual differences. Managers spend considerable time making judgements about the fit between individuals, job tasks and from these approaches it can be concluded that there is an overwhelming consensus that the, environment has a much greater effect than it is believed.The implications for organisations are important. It means that large areas of human behaviour are modifiable. Organisational design, training and development can have a profound impact on the behaviour of the members of an organisation. 9 Social Processes and Issues 4. 4 PERSONALITY Gordon Allport defined Personality as the dynamic organisa tion within the individual of those Psycho-Physical Systems that determine his unique adjustments to his environment. Personality can be described more specifically as â€Å"how a person affects others, how he understands and views himself and his pattern of inner and outer measurable traits. From this definition, it can be understood one's physical appearance and behaviour affects others. Understanding oneself means one is unique with a set of attitudes and values and a self-concept. Finally, the pattern of measurable traits refers to a set of characteristics that the person exhibits. Some of the other definitions are â€Å"Personality is a vehicle to integrate perception, learning, values and attitudes and thus to understand the total person. † â€Å"Personality is an individual's total sense of self, it is an organising force for the persons particular pattern of exhibited traits and behaviours. â€Å"Personality is the culmination of experiences and genetic influences. † Personality is influenced by the personal life and where he is working. 4. 5 DETERMINANTS OF PERSONALITY Personality is the result of both heredity and environment and also the situation. Heredity Heredity refers to those factors that were determined at conception. Physical appearance, temperament, energy level and biological rhythms are the characteristics which are generally influenced by one's Parents' i. e. , One's Biological, Physiological and Inherent Psychological Make up.The Heredity approach feels that personality of an individual is the Molecular Structure of the genes, located in the chromosomes. Environment Culture plays an important role in the formation of personality, i. e. , early conditioning, the norms among the family, friends and social groups. With the socialisation process in the group, personalities are altered over time. Situation Though an individual personality is constant, it does change depending on the situation. Different demands in different s ituations call forth different aspect of one's personality.The relationship of these three factors affects the formation and development of Personality. Psychological inheritance is entirely an internal contribution. Group and culture are the early environmental factors that form later behaviour. Family and social setting during the early stages of education are the important factors which influences the initial formation of personality. Whatever the child learns here lasts for life time. Later in life, it is the Peer groups or Primary affiliations at work, social activities which shape the Personality. 0 4. 6 TYPE AND TRAIT APPROACHES TO PERSONALITY Indian Environment: The Changing Scenario The traditional viewed individuals as Shy, Lazy, Melancholy, Ambitious, Aggressive. These were called a Traits. Groups of these traits were then aggregated to Personality types. Trait Approach Cattel (1973) identified 16 source traits/Primary Traits. These traits were found to be generally stead y and constant sources of behaviour. But there was found to be no scientific relevance.Figure 1: Sixteen Source Traits 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) 8) 9) 10) 11) 12) 13) 14) 15) 16) Reserved – Outgoing Less intelligent – More intelligent Affected by feelings – Emotionally stable Submissive – Dominant Serious – Happy go Lucky Expedient – Conscientious Timid – Venturesome Tough minded – Sensitive Trusting – Suspicious Practical – Imaginative Forthright – Shrewd Self-Assured – Apprehensive Conservative – Experimenting Group-dependent – Self-sufficient Uncontrolled – Controlled Relaxed – Tense In the type approach, several behaviours are seen as cluster characterising individuals with high degree of stability.Locus of control: People are assumed to be of two types: `Internals' and `Externals'. Internals are people who believe that much of what happens to them is controlled by their de stiny. Externals believe that much of what happens to them is controlled by outside forces. Machiavellianism: High Machs tend to take control, especially in loosely structured situations; Low Machs respond well to structured situations. High Machs tend to be more logical, rational and Pragmatic. They are more skilled in influencing and coalition building. Type ‘A’ or Type ‘B’People who are Hard-driving, impatient, aggressive, and super competitive are termed as Type `A' Personality. Those who are easy-going, sociable, laid-back and non-competitive are termed as Type `B' Personality. Type A people tend to be very productive and work very hard. They are workaholics. The negative side of them is that they are impatient, not good team players, more irritable, have poor judgement. Type B people do better on complex tasks involving judgement, accuracy rather than speed and team work. 11 Social Processes and Issues 4. 7 THEORIES OF PERSONALITYCarl Jung identified three basic assumptions in theory, 1) Personalities are developmental in that they are influenced by past and hopes for the future. 2) All people have the potential for growth and change. 3) Personality is the totality of a person's interacting sub-systems. Emotional Orientations Jung feels that the two basic Orientations of People are extroversion and introversion. Introverts are primarily oriented to the subjective world. They look inward at themselves, avoid ‘social contacts and initiating interaction with others, withdrawn, quiet and enjoy solitude.Extroverts are friendly, enjoy interaction with people, are generally aggressive and express their feelings and ideas openly. Managers should gain an understanding of themselves and learn how understanding others can make them better managers. Validity results showed that introvert/extrovert is really applicable to only the rare extremes. Most individuals tend to be ambiverts, that is, they are in between introversion and extrov ersion. Figure 2: Extroverts versus Introverts: Characteristics of Each Extroverts Introverts Likes variety and action. Tend to work faster, dislike complicated procedure.Are often good at greeting people. Are often impatient with slow jobs. Are interested in results of their job, getting it done and in how other people do it. Often do not, mind interruption of answering the telephone. Often act quickly, sometimes without thinking. Like to have people around. Usually communicate freely. Like quiet for concentration Tend to be careful with details, dislike sweeping statements. Have trouble in remembering names and faces. Tend not to mind working on one project for a long time uninterruptedly. Are interested in the idea behind their job.Dislike telephone intrusions and interruptions. Like to think a lot before they act, sometimes without acting. Work contentedly alone. Have some problems in communicating. Problem-solving Styles Jung identified two basic steps in problem solving: colle cting information and making decision. Collecting data occurs in a continuum from sensing to intuition. In terms of decision-making, it ranges from `thinking' to `feeling' types. Sensing-type: The person approaches the problem in a step by step organised way. The person works steadily and patiently with details.Intuitive type: One who does not show a lot of emotion, who can put things in a logical order and who can be firm and fair. The feeling type is very aware of other people, dislikes telling people unpleasant things and prefers harmony among people. 12 The interaction of these two aspects of problem solving results in four problemsolving types. 1) The sensing-feeling person likes to collect data in an orderly way and make decisions that take into account the needs of people. This person is very concerned with high-quality decisions that people will accept and implement. ) The intuitive-feeling person is equally concerned with the people side of decisions but the focus is on new ideas which are often broad in scope and lacking in details. 3) Sensing-thinkers emphasise details and quality of a decision. They are not as concerned with the people aspect of an organisation as with a technically sound decision. 4) Intuitive-thinking likes to tackle new and innovative problems, but make decisions primarily on technical terms. They tend to be good planners, but not so good at implementing. There is always a combination of these types in a person.General attitudes: The last personality sub-system Jung identified was general attitude work, namely judging and perceptive. Judging types like to follow a plan, Figure 3: Sensing Types versus Intuitive types: Characteristics of Each Sensing Types Dislike new problems unless there are standard ways to solve them. Like an established way of doing things. Enjoy using skills already learned more than learning new ones. Work more steadily, with realistic idea of how long it will take. Usually reach a conclusion step by step. Are patient with routine details. Are impatient when the details get complicated.Are not often inspired, and rarely trust the inspiration when they are. Seldom makes errors of fact. Tend to be good at precise work. Intuitive Types Like solving new problems. Dislike doing same thing repeatedly. Enjoy learning a new skill more than using it. Work in bursts of energy powered by enthusiasm, with slack periods in between. Reach conclusion quickly. Are impatient with routine details. Are patient with complicated situations. Follow their inspirations, good or had. Frequently makes errors of fact. Dislike taking time for decision. Indian Environment: The Changing ScenarioFigure 4: Thinking Types versus Feeling Types: Characteristics of Each Thinking Types Do not show emotion readily and are often uncomfortable dealing with people's feelings. May hurt people's feelings without knowing it. Like analysis and putting things into logical order; can get along without harmony. Tend to decide imper sonally, sometimes paying insufficient attention to people's wishes. Need to be treated fairly. Are able to reprimand people or fire them when necessary. Are more analytically oriented; respond easily to people’s thoughts. Tend to be firm minded.Feeling Types Tend to be very aware or other people and their feelings. Enjoy pleasing people, even in unimportant things. Like harmony. Efficiently may be badly disturbed by office feuds. Often let decisions be influenced by their own or other people's personal likes and wishes. Need occasional praise. Dislike telling people unpleasant things. Are more people-oriented; respond easily to people's values. Tend to be sympathetic. 13 Social Processes and Issues Figure 5: Judging Types versus Perceptive Types: Characteristics of Each Judging Types Work best when they can plan their work and follow the plan.Like to get things settled and finished. May decide things too quickly. May dislike to interrupt the project they are on for a more ur gent one. May not notice knew things that need to be done. Want only essentials needed to begin their work. Tend to be satisfied once they reach a judgement on a thing, situation, or person. Perceptive Types Adapt well to changes. Do not mind leaving things open for alterations. May have trouble making decisions . May start too many projects and have difficulty finishing them. May postpone unpleasant things. Want to know all about a new job.Tend to be curious and welcome new information on a thing, situation, or person. like to make decisions, and want only essentials for their work. On the other hand, perceptive types adapt well to change, want to know all about a job and may get overcommitted. Development of Personality: Erikson's eight life stages Erikson identified eight stages of life that characterise the unending development of a person. He characterised each stage by a particular conflict that needs to be resolved successfully before a person can move to the next stage. Howe ver, These eight stages are not totally separate, and the crises are never fully resolved.Movement between stages is developmental. Movement can even involve regression to earlier stages when traumatic events occur. Stage One, Infancy: During the first year of life a person resolves the basic crisis of trust vs. mistrust. An infant who is cared for in a loving and affectionate way learns to trust other people. Lack of love and affection results in mistrust. This stage makes a serious impact on a child that influences events for remaining life. Stage Two, early childhood: In the second and third years of life, a child begins to assert independence.If the child is allowed to control these aspects of life that the child is capable of controlling, sense of autonomy will develop. If the child encounters constant disapproval or inconsistent rule setting, a sense of self-doubt and shame is likely to develop. Stage Three, play age: The four and five year olds seek to discover just how much they can do. If a child is encouraged to experiment and to achieve reasonable goals, he or she will develop a sense of initiative. If a child is blocked 14 and made to feel incapable, he or she will develop a sense of `guilt and lack of selfconfidence'.Stage Four, school age: From ages 6 to 12, a child learns many new skills and develops social abilities. If a child experiences real progress at a rate compatible with his or abilities, the child will develop a sense of industry. The reverse situation results in a sense of inferiority. Stage Five, adolescence: The crisis of the teenage years is gain a sense of identity rather than to become confused about who you are. While undergoing rapid biological changes, the teenager is also trying to establish himself or herself as socially separate from parents.The autonomy, initiative, and industry developed in earlier stages are very important in helping the teenager successfully resolve this crisis and prepare for adulthood. Stage Six, youn g adulthood: The young adult (20's and 30's) faces the crisis of intimacy versus isolation. The sense of identity developed during the teenage years allows the young adult to begin developing deep and lasting relationships. Stage Seven, adulthood: During their 40's and 50's adults face the crisis of generativity versus self-absorption.Self-absorbed persons never develop an ability to look beyond themselves. They may become absorbed in career advancements and maintenance; and they may never learn to have concern for future generations, the welfare of organisations to which they belong or the welfare of society as a whole. Generative people see the world as much bigger than themselves. Productivity in work or child rearing or societal advancement become important to them. Through innovation and creativity, they begin to exert influence that benefits their organisation.Stage Eight, later life: The adult of integrity has gained a sense of wisdom and prospective that can truly help guide future generations. Sheldon: He labeled three body builds and certain Personality Characteristics they reflected. The three body types are: 1) Endomorph – Fleshy and inclined towards fatness. 2) Mesomorph – Athletic and inclined to be muscular 3) Ectomorph – Thin and inclined to' be fine-boned and fragile. The personality characteristics reflected are: Endomorph: Friendly, oriented towards people, seek others when troubled, slow to react, loves to eat.Mesomorph: Seeks physical adventure, needs and enjoys exercise, restless, aggressive, likes risk and chance, competitive. Ectomorph: Likes privacy, socially inhibited, quick to react and hypersensitive to pain. Indian Environment: The Changing Scenario Passages Theory Sheehy (1976) with her extensive research concluded that adults progress through five crises: 1) Pulling up Roots: This period occurs between the ages of eighteen and twenty two, when individuals exit from home and incur physical, financial, and emot ional separation from parents.They cover their fears and uncertainty with acts of defiance and mimicked confidence. 2) The Trying Twenties: This period is a time of opportunity, but also includes the fear that choices are irrevocable. Two forces push upon us — one is to build a firm, safe structure for the future by making strong commitments and the other is to explore and experiment and keep flexible as to commitments. 15 Social Processes and Issues 3) The Catch – Thirties: Approaching the age thirty is a time in which life commitments are made, broken or renewed.It may mean setting towards a new phase or calming down of idealistic dreams to realistic goals. Commitments are changed or they are deepened. There is change, turmoil, and often an urge to be out of the routine. The Deadline Decade: The ten years between the age of thirty-five and fortyfive represent a crossroad. This period is characterised by a re-examination of one's purposes and how the resources will be spent from now on. Renewal or Resignation: The mid forties bring a period of stability.The individual who can find a purpose and direction upon which to continue _ building his or her life, the mid forties may well be the best years. 4) 5) These stages are related to working places. It is expected that all employees face crises during their careers – Just as young people pass through identity crises, during their teenage years, adults too go through stages – insecurity, opportunities presented, opportunities forgone and lost, and either the acceptance of new challenges or resignation.These crises create the opportunity for an employee to alter his or her goals, commitments, and loyalties to the organisation. When employees reach their forties, they re-examine their goals and make important adjustments in their lives. Their personalities may undergo significant changes resulting in behavioural patterns quite different from his or her environment. Maturation Theory: Chr is Argyris has postulated a maturation theory of personality development that proposes that all healthy people seek situations that offer autonomy, ise interests, to be treated equally, and the opportunity to exhibit their ability to deal with complexity. Healthy individuals tend to move from immaturity to maturity: 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) From being passive to engaging in increasing activity. From dependence on others to independence. From having few ways to behave to possess many alternatives. From having shallow interests to developing deeper interests. From short time perspective to having a longer time perspective. From being in a subordinate position to viewing oneself as equal or superior. From lack of awareness of oneself to awareness of oneself,According to Argyris, healthy people will show the behaviours of maturity while unhealthy people tend to demonstrate childlike immature behaviours. Further, Argyris argues that most organisations tend to their employees like children, m aking them dependent. The manager who understands personality development is better able to predict these crises and recognise them as natural transitions that adults encounter. Neither trait nor type approach, or theories of personality presented help in predicting behaviour of an individual. The reason is, they ignore situational contexts. 4. 8 IMPORTANCE OF PERSONALITY 16Understanding of personality is very important because by determining what characteristics will make for effective job performance, it can aid in personnel selections; by increasing understanding of how personality and job characteristics interact it can result in better hiring, transfer and promotion decisions, and by providing insights into personality development it can help to anticipate, recognise and prevent the operationalising of costly defenses by organisational members. There are certain procedures by which personalities can be predicted: 1) 2) 3) 4) `Rating Scales' from peers or friends help in predict ing the ehaviour. `Experimental procedures' which help in the assessment of some characteristics of person. With the help of `Questionnaire' one can assess behaviour of the other, provided the answers are genuine. Projective Tests like Thematic Appreciation Test, Rorschach's Ink-Blot test help in predicting the personality of an individual. Indian Environment: The Changing Scenario These measures help in effectiveness of the organisation. 4. 9 ATTITUDES Attitudes are a way of responding either favourably or unfavourably to objects, persons, concepts etc. They are evaluative statements.They reflect how one feels about something. Attitudes are related to behaviour. It is an unidimensional variable, i. e. , positive or negative. They are hypothetical constructs. It is something inside a person. It may be observed but the attitude itself cannot. Attitudes in a person could be observed in three ways: 1) Direct experience with the person or situation. 2) Association with other similar per sons or situations. 3) Learning from others their association with the person or situation. `Direct experience' is the concrete experience stage of learning.Association is similar to abstract conceptualisation and generalisation. Learning from others is like reflection and observation. Attitudes evolve out of perception and learning process. One is not born with attitudes but acquires them through life experiences. But certain basic attitude of trust or mistrust occurs during the infancy. If a child's basic needs are met in a loving manner, the child will develop a sense of trust otherwise a sense of mistrust develops. The child also develops a sense of autonomy or shame and doubt. All these affects one's behaviour.And this linkage to behaviour is what managers are concerned with; and they also tend to understand the ways in which behaviour affects attitudes. 4. 10 ATTITUDES AND ORGANISATION In organisations, attitudes are important because they affect the job behaviour. These job r elated attitudes top positive or negative evaluations that employees hold about aspects of their work environment. There are three primary attitudes; job satisfaction, job involvement, and organisational commitment. Job satisfaction refers to an individual's general attitude towards his or her job, which is either positive or negative, i. . , satisfied or dissatisfied. Job involvement measures the degree to which a person identifies with his job, actively participates in it and considers his performance important to his self-worth. Organisational commitment is an orientation in terms of loyalty, identity and involvement in the organisation. These attitudes are measured so that behaviours like productivity, absenteeism and turnover can be predicted. Managers need not be interested only in understanding the attitudes of the people, but also in changing them. Since attitudes are learned they can be changed.Persuasive communications are used to change attitudes. But attitudes are slow t o change. Because they are based on deep-seated beliefs and values. I 7 17 Social Processes and Issues 4. 11 VALUES Values are encompassing concepts. American Management Association indicated that values are at the core of personality, and that they are ,powerful, though silent force affecting behaviour. Values are so embedded that it can be inferred from people's behaviour and their expressed attitudes. But values are a strong force in people.What may `appear' to be strange behaviour in an employee can make sense if managers understand the values underlying that behaviour. Rokeach (1973) â€Å"values represent basic convictions that a specific mode of conduct or end-state of existence is personally or socially preferable to an opposite or converse mode of conduct or end-state of existence. † Rokeach divided values into two broad categories: `Terminal values† relate to ends to be achieved e. g. comfortable life, family security, self-respect and sense of accomplishment. `Instrumental values' relate to means for achieving desired ends, e. g. mbition, courage, honesty and imagination. Terminal values reflect what a person is ultimately striving to achieve, whereas instrumental values reflect how the person get there. Values are so embedded that it can be inferred from people's behaviour and their perception, personality and motivation. They generally influence behaviour. They are relatively stable and enduring. This is because, the way in which they are originally learned. Allport (1951) identified six types of values. 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) Theoretical – Places high importance on the discovery of truth through critical and rational approach.Economic – Emphasises to be useful and practical. Aesthetic – Places the highest value on form and harmony. Social – The highest value is given to the love of people. Political – Places emphasis on acquisition of power and influence. Religious – Concerned with the unity of ex perience and understanding of the cosmos as a whole. People in different occupations place different importance on the six value types. The knowledge that people have different types of values has led a few of the more progressively managed organisations to initiate efforts to improve the values – job fit in order to enhance employee performance and satisfaction.Texas Instruments for instance, has developed a programme to diagnose different value types and to match properly these types with appropriate work environments within their company. Some individuals, for example, are classified as â€Å"tribalistic† – people who want strong, directive leadership from their bosses; some are â€Å"egocentric† desiring individual responsibilities and wanting to work as lovers in an entrepreneurial style; some are â€Å"sociocentric† seeking primarily the social relationship that job provides, and some are â€Å"existential†, seeking full expression of growth and self-fulfilment needs through their work, much as an artist does.Charles Hughes, director of personnel and organisation development at Texas Instruments, believes the variety of work that needs to be done, in his organisation is great enough to accommodate these different types work personalities in such a manner that an individual and organisational goals are fused. 18 4. 12 SOCIALISATION'S INFLUENCE ON PERSONALITY VALUES AND ATTITUDES Indian Environment: The Changing Scenario Organisations play a major factor in people's lives and it has a significant impact on people's personality, values and attitudes.Socialisation is the process by which an individual adapts himself to the working environment and gains loyalty and commitment to an organisation. `Through this process, a person learns the goals of the organisation, the means to achieve those goals, an employee's responsibilities and accepted ways of behaving in the organisation. In addition, the person learns the organ isation's attitudes and values. As the person becomes socialised in the organisation, there is also a tendency to adapt to the attitudes and values of the organisation.Thus, the organisation influences the personality, values and attitudes of an individual. Stages of Socialisation 1) Pre-arrival stage: Individuals develop preconceived notions about an organisation based on previous education, work experiences and contacts with organisation. 2) Encounter with the Organisation: A person's initial orientation, training and experiences with other employees who exhibit the accepted attitudes in the organisation all influence and change the person. ) Change of the Person and Acquisition of the new attitudes and values: When a person works in a company, he or she gradually learns what is expected and begins to develop a new personality that is consistent with the organisation depending, the person works for sometime in the same organization. Socialisation process is not limited to the entr y point in an organisation. Rather, it is a continuous process throughout person's career path. Socialisation occurs every time employee makes a move in an organisation.As people move vertically up the organisation's hierarchy, they encounter different norms, values and attitudes. At the entry stage, employees must assimilate these new factors if they are to be successful, and the potential is there for an alteration of their personality. Economic conditions, competitions and technological advances can cause an organisation to change its basic orientation: The resulting adaptation will bring new forces to bear on each organisation member – forces which may alter personalities 4. 13 SCHEIN SOCIALISATION MODELSchein identified three ways in which individuals respond to the socialisation forces of the organisation and thus exert influence on their own personalities. 1) Rebellion: The new employee could attempt to fight the organisation. The result might be dismissal, or change i n the organisation, or change in the person (regardless of whether the individual wins or losses). 2) Creative Individualism: Where an employee accepts the organisation's values and attitudes which are important and rejects the others. The employee uses a combination of personal and organisational values in relation to the organisation. ) Conform: A person could simply conform to the organisational forces and exert very little influence on the organisation. 19 Social Processes and Issues Thus socialisation is a process that exerts influence toward changing personality. But previous socialisation, learning and attitude formation create forces that operate to maintain personality as a consistent type. Perceptual process filters socialisation forces in an attempt to maintain consistency between people's surroundings and their self-concept and it depends on strength ‘of these forces.Personality, Attitude and Values continue to develop and evolve over a time. To understand the proc ess of socialisation is necessary for a manager because it relates directly to work organisation. 4. 14 SUMMARY From this Unit, it was learnt that understanding human behaviour is essential for an effective manager, as it facilitates to achieve organisational goals better. The reasons for individual differences and approaches of understanding human behaviour are explained. It was understood from this unit, that attitudes are opinions about things.Values represent deep-seated standards by which people evaluate their world. The past plays an important role in the development of attitudes and values. Personality is the result of person's experiences and genetic influences. Approaches, theories and determinants of personality were explained. Finally, the process of socialisation in an organisation that alters one's personality, values and attitudes was discussed. 4. 15 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) 8) SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS Why should organisations give importance in understanding human behav iour? What is individual difference?What are the factors which affect individual differences? Describe various models in understanding human behaviour. Define value. Define attitudes. How are they similar? Different? What is the source of values and attitudes? Values have been described as the foundation of individual behaviour. On what basis do you think such a statement was made? Explain why personality is developmental in nature, what are the primary factors that influence the evolution of personality? Why are the first three stages of Erikson's model of personality so crucial to long-term ersonality development? How do the crises of these three stages relate to the crises of the remaining stages? Describe locus of control, â€Å"Machiavillianism† and type A or B as types of personality. 9) 10) Describe the differences between type and trait approaches. . 11) 12) Describe the sub-systems of Jung's Personality Theory. Also explain the four dimensions of the theory. Describe the socialisation processes and explain how it influences personality, attitudes and values. 20 4. 16 FURTHER READINGS Indian Environment: The Changing ScenarioB. Narayan and Bharati Sharma, 1993; â€Å"Behavioural Science in Management† Omsons Publications, New Delhi. Harlow/Hamke, 1975; Behaviour in Organisations Text, Readings and Cases, Little, Brown and Company. Randolph, Black Bown, 1989; Managing Organisational Behaviour, Richard Irwin, Inc. Stephen P. Robbins, 1985; Organisational Behaviour, Concepts, Controversies and Applications, Prentice Hall of India Private Limited, New Delhi. Terrence R. Mitchell, 1982; `People in Organisations', McGraw-Hill International Book Company. Terrence R.Mitchell, 1983; People in Organisations, An Introduction to Organisational Behaviour, McGraw-Hill International Book Company. The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (Consulting Psychologists Press, Palo Alto, Cal. , 1962) is a very popular instrument for Jungian types. Please Understand Me b y David Keirsey (Prometheus Nemesis Book, Del, Mar, Cal, USA, 1978) is a good simple introduction to Jungian types based on Keirsey Temperament Sortex (70 item pair comparison questionnaire). Usha Haley and S. A. Stumpf in â€Å"Cognitive trails in Strategic Decision Making† (Journal of Management Studies, 1989, 26, 77-497) have discussed what Heuristics the four Jungian types use to gather data, and to generate and evaluate alternatives. Also the four types use different cognitive trails, and can consequently fall prey to biases that lurk in these trails. The Heuristics of biases of the four personality are: Types STs NTs SFs NFs Heuristics Anachrony Perseverance Availability Vividness Biases Functional fixedness and regularity and structure. Positivity and representativeness. Social-desirability and fundamental attribution Reasoning-by-analogy and illusory-correlation. 21

Arbitration Agreement

BY: ISAAC, OKORONKWO . C. HEM/1137 ABSTRACT This paper seeks to look into the issues concerning arbitration agreement under the Arbitration and Conciliation Act (ACA). It identifies the categories, forms, parties and highlights of the arbitration agreement. It also examines the enforcement of an arbitration agreement. This paper reveals that arbitration is a major attraction as being the most flexible way of settling dispute. Thus, it was suggested that arbitration agreement is a vital component of an arbitration proceedings. 1. 0INTRODUCTIONArbitration has continued to maintain the lead as the preferred mechanism for resolution of domestic and international business disputes in the Nigerian legal system. An arbitration agreement means a voluntary agreement to submit to arbitration present or future disputes, â€Å"whether contractual or not†. It is clear; therefore, that a claim in tort or fraud may be the subject matter of an arbitration agreement (Udechukwu, 2008). An arbit ration agreement can be included in the original or be in the form of a separate agreement, either at the time of the contract or subsequently.Therefore, even in the absence of an original integrated arbitration clause the parties can still decide to settle a presently existing dispute by arbitration. The arbitration agreement is the document, which is normally in writing containing details about the reference of the disputes for resolution by the arbitrators. It is an agreement on paper containing information signed by the parties; containing and providing records of the arbitration agreement (Oyegbile, 2000). It is a very important document guiding the entire process of arbitration.It also includes any reference in a contract to a document containing an arbitration clause which constitutes an arbitration agreement if such contract is in writing and the reference is such as to make that clause part of the contract. Unless a contrary intention is expressed in the arbitration agreeme nt, it shall be irrevocable except:- i. By agreement of the parties ii. By leave of the court or a Judge iii. Even, the occurrence of death of either of the parties does not automatically revoke the arbitration agreement.Rather, it shall be enforceable by or against the personal representatives of the deceased. In the past, arbitration agreement could be in oral but the present arbitration act only recognized written agreement to arbitrate. The implication of this is that only written agreements are enforceable by the courts or Judge. 1. 1AIM AND OBJECTIVES The aim of this work is to provide information on arbitration agreement under the Arbitration and Conciliation Act (ACA) CAP A18 2004.To achieve the above aim, the specific objectives are to: * Identify the categories of arbitration agreement * Examine the enforcement of the arbitration agreement * Identify parties to the arbitration agreements * Identify the major highlight of Arbitration and Conciliation Act (ACA). 2. 0LITERATU RE REVIEW 2. 1CATEGORIES OF ARBITRATION AGREEMENTS There are two basic types of agreement: [1] the arbitration clause and [2] the submission agreement.An arbitration clause looks to the future, whereas a submission agreement looks to the past. The first, which is most common, is usually contained in the principal agreement between the parties and is an agreement to submit future disputes to arbitration. The second is an agreement to submit existing disputes to arbitration. Arbitration clauses are usually short, whilst submission agreements are usually long. This is not because of any particular legal requirement. It is simply a reflection of the practicalities of the situation.An arbitration clause that deals with disputes which may arise in the future does not usually go into much detail, since it is not known what kind of disputes will arise and how they should best be handled. Indeed, although the parties to a contract may agree to an arbitration clause, they hope that there will be no need to invoke it. Usually they insert a short model clause, recommended by an arbitral institution, as a formality. By contrast, a submission agreement deals with a dispute that has in fact already arisen; and so it can be tailored to fit precisely the circumstances of the case.In addition to indicating the place of arbitration and the substantive law, it generally names the arbitrators, sets out the matters in dispute and even, if thought appropriate, provides for exchange of written submissions and other procedure matters. 2. 2ENFORCEMENT OF THE ARBITRATION AGREEMENTS Nigerian Courts have adopted a positive approach to the enforcement of arbitration agreements. A review of the decided cases shows a general recognition by Nigerian Courts of arbitration as a good and valid alternative dispute resolution mechanism. In C. N.ONUSELOGU ENT. LTD. V. AFRIBANK (NIG. ) LTD, the Court held that arbitral proceedings are a recognised means of resolving disputes and should not be taken lightly by both counsel and parties. However, there must be an agreement to arbitrate, which is a voluntary submission to arbitration. Where there is an arbitration clause in a contract that is the subject matter of Court proceedings and a party to the Court proceedings promptly raises the issue of an arbitration clause, the Courts will order a stay of proceedings and refer the parties to arbitration.SECTIONS 6(3) and 21 of the Lagos State Arbitration Law 2009, which â€Å"empowers the Court to grant interim orders or reliefs to preserve the res or rights of parties pending arbitration. † Although the ACA in section 13 gives the arbitral tribunal power to make interim orders of preservation before or during arbitral proceedings, it does not expressly confer the power of preservative orders on the Court and Section 34 of the ACA limits the Courts’ power of intervention in arbitration to the express provisions of the ACA.The usefulness of section 6(3) of the Lagos State Arbitration Law 2009 is seen when there is an urgent need for interim preservative orders and the arbitral tribunal is yet to be constituted. In this regard, such applications find no direct backing under the ACA and have always been brought under the Rules of Court and under the Court’s inherent jurisdiction to grant interim orders. However, in AFRIBANK NIGERIA PLC V HACO, the Court granted interim relief and directed the parties to arbitrate under the provisions of ACA.Upon the publication of the award the parties returned to the Court for its enforcement as judgment of the Court. The Courts in Nigeria are often inclined to uphold the provisions of Sections 4 and 5 of the ACA provided the necessary conditions are met. A live case in point is the case of MINAJ SYSTEMS LTD. V. GLOBAL PLUS COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS LTD. & 5 ORS, in this case, the Claimant instituted a Court action in breach of the arbitration agreement in the main contract and on the Defendant’s application , the Court granted an order staying proceedings in the interim for 30 days pending arbitration.In NIGER PROGRESS LTD. V. N. E. I. CORP. , the Supreme Court followed section 5 of the ACA which gives the Court the jurisdiction to stay proceedings where there is an arbitration agreement. In the owners of the MV LUPEX V. NIGERIAN OVERSEAS CHARTERING & SHIPPING LTD, the Supreme Court held that it was an abuse of the Court process for the respondent to institute a fresh suit in Nigeria against the appellant for the same dispute during the pendency of the arbitration proceedings in London. In AKPAJI V.UDEMBA, the Court held that where a defendant fails to raise the issue of an arbitration clause and rely on same at the early stage of the proceeding but takes positive steps in the action, he would be deemed to have waived his right under the arbitration clause. 2. 3THE PARTIES TO AN ARBITRATION AGREEMENT The parties to a contract must have legal capacity to enter into that contract, otherw ise it is invalid. The position is no different if the contract in question happens to be an arbitration agreement.The general rule is that any natural or legal person who has the capacity to enter into a valid contract has the capacity to enter into an arbitration agreement. Accordingly, the parties to such agreements include individuals, as well as partnerships, corporations, states and state agencies. If an arbitration agreement is entered into by a party who does not have the capacity to do so, (the law where applicable) may be invoked either at the beginning or at the end of the arbitral process. If it is invoked at the eginning of the process, the party requesting for it would ask the competent court to stop the arbitration, on the basis that the arbitration agreement is null and void. Where the validity of the arbitration agreement is raised at the end of the arbitration process, the requesting party would ask that the competent court to refuse the recognition and enforcement of such an award, on the grounds that one of the parties to the arbitration agreement is â€Å"under some incapacity† under the applicable law. 3. 0MAJOR HIGHLIGHTS OF THE ARBITRATION ACT a) The Arbitration Clause: The Arbitration and Conciliation Act (â€Å"ACA†) CAP.A18 2004 mandates that all arbitration agreements must be in writing and signed by the parties, in an exchange of letters, telex, telegram or other means of communication; or point of claim or defence. In Nigeria, arbitration clauses are irrevocable except by the leave of court or mutual agreement of parties. Even where parties had no prior agreement, with a submission agreement, parties may still submit to arbitration; b) Subject-matter Arbitrability: The â€Å"ACA† does not stipulate any particular subject matter that may not be referred to arbitration.The question of whether or not a dispute is arbitrable has therefore been left at the discretion of the Courts. In ARAB REPUBLIC V. OGUNWALE(2002 ) 9 NWLR (PART 771) 127,the Court of Appeal held that the test for determining whether a dispute is arbitrable or not is that the dispute or difference must necessarily arise from the clause contained in the agreement. However not all disputes are necessarily arbitrable c) Binding Nature: The â€Å"ACA5† provides that every arbitration award in Nigeria shall be binding on the parties.This is to preclude a recalcitrant party from preventing a successful party from enjoying the fruits of his judgment. d) Number of Arbitrators: In Nigeria, the number of arbitrators is either one or three. The parties to an arbitration agreement may determine their preferred numbers of arbitrators to be appointed under the agreement, but where no such determination is made, the number of arbitrators shall be deemed to be three. e) Challenge of an arbitrator: Parties may determine the procedure to be followed in challenging an arbitrator. Where no such procedure is determined a party who intends t o challenge an arbitrator shall, within ifteen days of becoming aware of the constitution of the arbitral Tribunal or becoming aware of any of the grounds, send to the arbitral Tribunal a written statement of the reasons for the challenge. f) Preservative Orders: The provisions of the ACA cloths the members of a Tribunal with the requisite powers to grant preservative orders during an arbitration reference. These orders however do not include granting injunctions etc. The Act provides that in such circumstance, the Tribunal can remit that portion of the reference to a proper court for the grant of such injunctive relief. ) Language to be used in Arbitral proceedings: In Nigeria, the parties may, by agreement determine the language or languages to be used in the arbitral proceedings. But where they do not do so, the arbitral Tribunal shall determine the language to be used bearing in mind the relevant circumstances of the case. h) Legal Representation: In Nigeria, the parties to an a rbitral proceeding may appear for themselves or be represented or assisted by a legal practitioner of their choice. i) The Award: An Award may be interim, interlocutory, or final. Any award made in Nigeria must adhere to the following: * It must be in writing; It must be signed by all the arbitrators (if they are more than one); * It must be delivered with a reason (except where parties agree otherwise); * The place where the Award was made must be stated on the award. j) The enforcement of an Award: An arbitral award shall, irrespective of the country in which it is made, be recognised as binding on the parties. This is made possible by the Foreign Judgments (Reciprocal Enforcements) Act, Cap 152, Laws of the Federation of Nigeria 2004, which makes foreign arbitral awards registerable in Nigerian Courts if at the date of registration it could be enforced by execution in Nigeria. . 1THE DOCTRINE â€Å"SEPARABILITY† It is also known as the doctrine or principle of autonomy or independence of the arbitration clause. Separability means the arbitrability clause in a contract is considered to be separate from the main contract of which it forms part and as such, survives the termination of that contract. It noteworthy to mention that arbitration agreement can be in form of an arbitration clause in a contract or in a separate agreement addressing disputes that have already arisen.The doctrine of separability is most relevant to arbitration clause in a contract an underlying contract. At the outset it must be recognised that this doctrine is inextricably linked with the doctrine of kompetence-kompetence which empowers the arbitrator to decide his own jurisdiction in the first instance. While kompetence-kompetence empowers the arbitration tribunal to decide on its own jurisdiction, the doctrine of separability affects the outcome of this decision.The doctrine of separability is provided for under Section 12(2) of ACA: For purposes of subsection (1) of this sect ion, an arbitration clause which forms part of a contract shall be treated as an agreement independent of the other terms of the contract and a decision by the arbitral tribunal that the contract is null and void shall not entail ipso jure the validity of the arbitration clause. For arbitral tribunals whose seat is in Nigeria (including under domestic arbitration) the source of this doctrine is article 12(2) of ACA quoted above which is a mandatory provision.Parties cannot therefore as a matter of contract, derogate from this provision and agree otherwise. Finally, separability thus ensures that if, for example one party claims that there has been a total breach of contract by the other, the contract is not destroyed for all purposes. Instead: â€Å"It survives for the purpose of measuring the claims arising out of the breach, and the arbitration clause survives for determining the mode of their settlement. The purposes of the contract have failed, but the arbitration clause is not one of the purposes of the contract. † 4. 0DATA AND METHODIn bid to gather information for this study, the secondary source of data collection was utilized, which includes – journals, textbooks and other relevant document from the internet (web sites and e-library). 5. 0CONCLUSION The importance of the arbitration agreement is imperative and vital to the success of an arbitration proceeding. The arbitration agreement represents the wishes of the parties to submit future dispute to arbitration while submission clause attends to disputes that have already arisen. REFERENCES ACA. (2004). Arbitration and Concilation Act CAP A8, Laws of the Federation of Nigeria (LFN) .Nigeria. National Open University. (n. d. ). Alternative Disput Resolution II. Retrieved 02 23, 2013, from www. noun. edu. ng Oyegbile, S. O. (2000). An Introduction to Arbitration and Conciliation. Minna: Jameson Graphic Publishers. Tolulope, A. (2012). Arbitration in the Emerging Markets. The International Charmber of Commerce Clyde & Co. Conference (pp. 2-4). London: Aron. Udechukwu, C. E. (2008). Professional Practice for Real Estate Professionals. Lagos: Treem Nigeria Limited. Wikipedia. (2013). Web Encylopedia. Retrieved 02 14, 2013, from www. wikipedia. com: http://www. wikipedia. com

A Room With A View and Its Relevance to the Edwardian Era

Paper proposal on the view and the room with relevance to that Edwardian era The Edwardian era in the UK is a period of sexual politics, unconscious obviousness, tension between social security and individual freedom, and against God and religion It was an era of shaking. Uncertain belief Edwardian era has sometimes called golden age, and high-class parties and high fashion are also concerns of everyone. First impressions and procedures are very important, they are more important than freedom of speech and expression. The first decade of the twentieth century was ten years of the reign of Edward VII. This era is known as the World Book Encyclopedia (59). This is the era of King King Edward named after him. The Edward era was the beginning of the 20th century and caused various predictions about how this century celebrated the beginning of the true golden era, Richard Washington said. This era is known as the hottest era in our world history (www.geocites.com). Edward VII and other Ed ward VII have also helped to achieve this goal. When Queen Victoria died in 1901, it meant the end of the Victorian era. The next era was called the Edwardian era and was named after King Edward who took over her mother. King Edward died in 1910, but the Edwardian era often extended to the beginning of the First World War of 1914, and in some cases even extended until the end of the war in 1918. This era is often called the modern era and in the UK it was named the then modern era. This modernization is the continuation of the Victorian era, many of which began. For London, the modern era seems to be more calm than the chaotic Victorian era. The invention and change of the 19th century seems to have settled in the first 20 years of the 20th century. In British history, the Victorian era was the reign of Queen Victoria, she died from June 20, 1837 to January 22, 1901. This era was the first part of the beautiful era of the continent of Europe, after the Georgian era and before the Ed wardian era. Regarding moral sensitivity and political reform, this period began with the adoption of Reform Act in 1832. There is a strong religious motivation for the ethical standards of churches that are outrageous, such as Methodist and leaders of evangelical churches in established churches. In addition to the England Crimean War, Britain has established a relatively peaceful relationship with other major powers, and Pax Britannica is maintained by the naval supremacy and industrial hegemony of that country. The UK has started to expand the world empire, especially in Asia and Africa. This made the British Empire the greatest empire in history. Nationwide confidence peaks

Mollie's job Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Mollie's job - Essay Example The company may have been relying on the outsourcing of labor from countries with low wage. The aim of this outsourcing might have been to ensure high quality production as a cost effective means. The relocation might be due to the searching of relatively cheaper labor cost in the market. This means that the relocation may have been to countries low labor costs or availability of markets. Low labor cost is a relative factor that over time may change, thus explaining the several relocations (Moley). The movement may be due to search of better infrastructure and qualified workers access. The skilled labor abundance will lead to lower prices for quality services (demand and supply rule). The availability of technological skills also might have been the reason to why the company kept moving. Technological inventions and innovation have advanced to be common thus making it hard to cope up with if the labor force is not exposed enough. Companies or businesses might be forced to move from one area to another in search of highly skilled management personnel. Another reason would be to move where the employees can easily access capacity building services easily (Moley). Companies and organizations can relocate in search of benefits that relate to financial incentives (Moley). The generosity within the financial incentive offers may make a company to decide to relocate from country A to B. Or even chose country or state A over the country or State B. Financial incentives like tax incentives normally increase the profit margin of companies, thus suitable for conducting business. The Mollie’s case may be due to the same issue; thus making her employer to move from one area to another. The multiple movements are normal since the incentives offered may differ from one country to another. In summary, the incentives offered are normally relative and depends with the governing body of the area thus differ. The Mollie’s employees may have been looking for new

Main Theories of International Trade and Corporate Strategy Essay

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Research Paper Example They also serve to secure internet traffic. Just like a Wide Area Network, it connects multiple sites and servers over a long distance. The most important aspect of a virtual private network is its emphasis on privacy, because when a client computer connects to the internet through a VPN, its initial IP address is replaced by the one provided for by the VPN providers. For Example, a person’s physical location is Washington, but while using a virtual private network he appears to live in Brussels, this clearly shows that users obtain IP addresses from the area the VPN provides (Stewart 2011). In order to get access or connection into a virtual private network, one must have a username and password, mostly provided for by the service provider. On a computer, a VPN client is normally used, or you can access a special website, you enter your correct authentication details, then the computer exchanges information with the remote servers and once verification has taken place, connection happens and all the information and internet data is encrypted and secured from on lookers. Software developers have also developed applications for smart phones to also take advantages of accessing the internet safely through a VPN, by using certain protocols such as PPTP and L2TP/IPSec. Computers also uses PPTP VPN connections, OpenVPN and L2TP/IPSec protocols use an open source software known as OpenVPN client and authentication details configured into a certificate that you download and run on the client (Yuan & Strayer 2001). A virtual private network has many protocols of which can be utilized to secure the flow of information over a public network with the only difference between these protocols being how each keeps the data safe and secure (Geier 2014). IP Security protocol (IPSec), is one of the major protocols used to obtain a secure connection over the internet, it is a combination of many

Galileo's Interventionist Notion of Cause Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Galileo's Interventionist Notion of Cause - Essay Example In Galileo's Interventionist Notion of "Cause", Steffen Ducheyne has deliberated on Galileo's development of a "new notion of causality" (p.443), which was primarily based on interventionist school. Steffen used respective studies and analyses from past and current researchers and presented his point of view after contrasting it from pro and con views, thus, highlighted his own point of view in an oblique way. Steffan said that Galileo believed that in order to find a causal link, one should be able to manipulate changes and the resultant changes should be reflected as effects of original changes. Thus, if A causes B and changes in A also affect B, causal relationship is established. Galileo, like a seeker, was looking for the hidden and accidental causes of effects. He was more interested in the "root" than in the "how" of a cause.Analysts have been divided by the question of whether Galileo really presented causal inquiries in his explanations of nature's phenomena as causal explan ations are more easily found in Galileo's earlier works than later ones. An analysis by Ernan supported Galileo by reinterpreting this absence of "cause" in Galileo's later works as an increasing focus on kinematics, which was a precursor of dynamics, since only after properties of motion were described fully, can the respective causal explanations follow. Peter Machammer, however, believed that Galileo's unconcern for causes was reflected by the fact that he was not concerned with extrinsic causes but with "formal and final causes, and sometimes material causes" (Ducheyne, p.446). Galileo in his earliest work De Motu explicitly stated his quest not to seek for apparent causes of observable facts. Galileo's usage of causal language may be analogous to Aristotelian reflection of causes as laid down in Aristotle's Posterior Analysis, and typified by a procedure involving analysis and deduction from observed effect to possible cause and reverse composition from cause to the effect. According to Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Galileo had achieved a remarkable feat of breaking away from traditional stereotyped Aristotelian concepts to scientific concepts that were used as a basis of "new sciences" and the foundation stone of new philosophy. (Peter Machamer, Encyclopedia of Philosophy). It is how Galileo used causal explanation, Steffan believed, would help unravel Galileo's reasoning thread and allow the novel features, the interventionist element, in Galileo's causal explanations to come through. True causes, according to Galileo, should be closest or most efficacious in producing the effects. If an effect is not produced then the concerned element is not the true cause. Discussion Julian Reiss in Causal Instrumental Variables and Interventions argued against taking causal inferences on the basis of causal claims as reliable if these were based on instrumental variables. He said that taking a set of assumptions to fulfill an instrument analogous to James Woodward's intervention and causal inference might be permissible. However, he argued that for the relationship to hold, the set of assumptions might have to be very strong (Julian Reiss, Causal Instrumental Variables and Interventions). Galileo on the other hand is shown to be quite eager to proclaim his universal causality theory for all true causes. Galileo's explanations seem to have improved over his predecessors (Aristotle), however in hindsight specific lacunas or flaws can now be identified. However it goes to Galileo's credit to have improved thinking from set compartmentalized way into what he believed to better and truer explanation. Galileo believed that the phenomenon of tides was the principle proof that the Earth moved. He set out to prove his theory by postulating that an appropriate model could largely reproduce the effect of the tides, whereas other causes (of the tides) that were promulgated at that time could not produce the desired effect. Galileo can be credited with laying seeds of scientific analysis and being able to study

International Corporate Reporting Issues Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

International Corporate Reporting Issues - Essay Example There are different range of users of financial statements that include both internal and external users, but as far as financial statements of Britvic are considered it include different KPIs that convey different messages about the company, like take a look at performance highlight about the company where Britvic key management personnel discloses different facts about the company’s performance that has value of information about the company for users specially investors. Accounting estimates that are uses by preparers of financial statements while preparing these financial statements are subjective decisions, which is one of the big limitation of the financial statement as due to this factor the users of financial statements may be misled. Professional judgment uses by preparer of financial statement is also one of the reason which undermine the uses of financial statements, as it involve judgment in preparation of financial statements that may be wrong and can ultimately hit financial decision taken by users of financial statements on the basis of these financial statements. Verifiability of these financial statements through audit is not an absolute verifiable factor so one cannot take decisions like take over just on the basis of these financial statements while assuming that these are audited accounts, Historical costing is also one of the reason that may cause users of financial statements to be misled as in historical costing asset are carried in the books as cost of asset less accumulated depreciation that may not be the market value hence it may miss lead the users. Measurability is also one of the reason that undermine the uses of financial statements because it involve only those areas that can financially be measured and areas that cannot be valued or out of financial statements hence like good will and employees performance cannot be seen while reviewing financial

Baroque Period through the Romantic Age Essay Example for Free

Baroque Period through the Romantic Age Essay Social, political, or economic conditions can significantly alter the nature and meaning of art. As power shifted from the wealthy to the common man, art in Europe changed dramatically to reflect that change. During the Rococco period, art was detailed and overblown. Interior decorations- primarily furniture- were full of curving lines and organic inspiration, and paintings, â€Å"with their playful eroticism, soft colours and elegant forms† (Malyon, 1999, para. 1) were well suited to balance these rooms. Such frivolousness could only be associated with a powerful upper-class. The common man, of course, could not afford such luxurious surroundings when the main concern was putting food on the table. That this style was the style of the day clearly illustrates how the aristocracy’s desires for excess affected artists’ and craftsmen’s work. Rubens’ work during the Baroque period, with its focusing on robust, curvaceous women, seems to be bursting with life and hope. In â€Å"Portrait of Isabella Brant,† for example, Isabella has a slight smile on her face, as though she has a secret that might be a little bit funny. It’s as though she knows how important the shift of power, from the few, rich aristocrats, to the many struggling working class citizens, will be. She doesn’t appear to be a peasant, but neither is she a princess. Isabella, perhaps, had more to be laugh about than most- with the aristocracy soon becoming a target for violence, and the impoverished still limited by a lack or resources, the middle class would become the best social class to belong to! Because Rubens was a well respected citizen, (Eisler, 1996) his skillful portrayal of the working class drew attention to people, who, for the first time, had some hope of being empowered. At the same time, portraits of the aristocrats were subdued and sad-looking, as though they know their reign is nearly over. In El Greco’s â€Å"Saint Louis, King of France, and a Page,† for example, â€Å"He holds†¦ attributes of royal power in his hands†¦ but intensely gazes at the viewer with a grave, melancoly (sic) expression on his face. † (de Vergnette, n. d. ) When the lower classes finally did revolt, the Neoclassic style emerged and drew heavily on ancient Greek and Roman influences. Bust of Voltaire Without His Wig, by Jean-Antoine Houdon, and Cupid and Psyche, by Antonio Canova, are two notable examples. The human body is portrayed without garments or other adornment- rich and poor are equal without clothes on. These ancient civilizations’ famously successful (for a time) democracies must have been quite inspirational to people who had been subjugated for hundreds of years. Their standards were therefore emulated not only in the political and social world, but also in the art world. References de Vergnette, Francoise. (n. d. ) â€Å"Saint Louis, Kind of France, and a Page. † Paintings: Spanish Painting. Retrieved March 16, 2008 from http://www.louvre. fr/llv/oeuvres/detail_notice. jsp? CONTENTcnt_id=10134198673226326CURRENT_LLV_NOTICEcnt_id=10134198673226326FOLDERfolder_id=9852723696500811fromDept=truebaseIndex=162bmUID=1189640373517bmLocale=en Eisler, Colin. (1996). Masterworks in Berlin: A City’s Paintings Reunited: Painting in the Western World, 1300-1914. Retrieved March 16, 2008 from http://www. artchive. com/artchive/R/rubens. html Malyon, John. (1999). â€Å"Rococco. † Mark Harden’s Artchive. Retrieved March 16, 2008 from http://www. artchive. com/artchive/rococo. html

Quality of service of a network

Quality of service of a network CONGESTION MANAGMENT: Networks which are designed to support most different traffic types which share a single data path between routers. Congestion management techniques should be considered in such cases to ensure the quality and treatment for the various traffic types. Traffic prioritization especially important for delay-sensitive, interactive transaction based application for instance, for example takes video conferencing that requires higher priority than the file transfer applications. However use of WFQ (weighted fair queuing) ensures that all traffic is treated fairly. Prioritization is most effective in WAN links where the combination of bursty traffic and relatively lower data rates can cause temporary congestion if there is no congestion on the WAN link, there is no reason to implement traffic prioritization. APPLICATION QUALITY: By various parameters used for network quality of service which allows the specification of quality metrics. Such quality of service metrics are monitored and analysed using network quality parameters and important aspect of quality which is always ignored in many cases and overlooked is the behaviour of each and every individual applications in the internet recognised .most applications try to possess a majority part of network resources possible, immediately it may not or influence the quality of an application. NETWORK QUALITY OF SERVICE: The Ability to provide better service to a selected traffic.Quality of service refers to the ability of a network to provide highest quality service to any selected network traffic using various technologies in the latest networks used with a combination of traffic Qos ensures the exact application to be accessed to the resources of the network first, it is a combination of various technologies which allows application to recive request most acceptable and predicted service levels in terms of data and its Bandwidth (throughput capacity) latency variation in jitter, packet loss and delays.Qos provide the best features and more predictable network service by following methods(cisco 2009) Ø Dedicated bandwidth and support Ø Loss characteristics Ø Congestion avoidance and mangment of network Ø Network traffic shaping OPERATION OF QOS: Ø Qos distinguishes the traffic and splits it with very exact timing requirements Ø It improves resources in the network so that all the traffic reaches the specified destinations reliably and faster Ø It doesnt create any bandwidth it simply manages it effectively to meet the application requirements (OPNET 2008) Here the working of qos follow a series flow of simple rules in order to execute the file or a packet and at first the packet is pass through the classification which means that the following packet must be in which group does it fit then the packet is moved on to the next level which is the pre-queuing which means that the following packet is arranged in a order according to the source and the destination numbers and then it is again moved on to the next level which is the queuing and scheduling its main work is to set the stream to the destination point so that it automatically enforces the bandwidth allocations then moves on to the last level which is the post queuing which increases throughput on the lower speed links so that it reaches the destination point within the time it has decided and thus the working of the qos is completed. ADVANTAGES OF QOS: Ø Dedicated bandwidth Ø Controlled network latency and jitter Ø Improved loss characterstics Ø Control and predictability beyond best effort concept (OPNET NETWORK 2008) NEED OF QOS IN A NETWORK: All packets in a network are given equal access to all the resources , the priorty acn only be given when we can distinguish data packet from a voice packet. For a company network to effectively use the network and its resources it must identify which network traffic is the appropriate and which is not to allocate the right recourses to effectively support the traffic streams . The priority should be given to all the data streams to failing to do so can create low quality of voice and data, because most of the audio and visual application is delay and jitter sensitive. Only a good Qos can give the audio and video packets the best priority access. Qos evolution: The networks which are used with Qos enabled are called the Best -effort network. Where each and every packet is treated in the same way which is significantly important in the network design for preferable results, when even space in the cpu is available these type of networks work prominently. There are two major architectures of qos, both the architecture have different approach and different ways of quality of service in their own preferable ways. The main architecture of Qos is integrated services and differentiated services. Traffic characteristics that Qos tools can effect 1) Bandwidth 2) latency 3) jitter 4) compression 5) queuing BANDWIDTH: Bandwidth refers to number of bits per second that can reasonably be expected to be successfully delivered across same medium. firstly bandwidth techniques are mainly used to describe or define network traffic and to do this we can set some special type of techniques which are mainly used by the network devices such as blue coat for instance and by using this we can setup a type of service (TOS) in the packet of the internet protocol header and by using the required information of the type of service we can set the device in action and allow the traffic to flow in different direction and for another instance we can choose some factors to involve this issue such as audio clarity, if the sound is audible in two different direction then it is said to be working in perfect condition and this can be measured by the MOS (which means the mean opinion score) , so by this we can rate from 1-5 which means that 1 scores the worst and 5 scores the best and the average typical analogue call whi ch rates from 4.1 to 4.7 and a avg cell phone ranges from 3.5 to 3.9 and if we considered the VOIP CALLS ranges from the 4.0 to 4.4 so which means that the VoIP also has the best average rating in audio clarity and if we comes to reliability comes to 99.999 so which is more reliability to the customers and the usage of them is also more and the techniques used in this kind of symphony which is sophisticated and the consistency is also more which is mixed out with the qos so this is in short all about bandwidth in qos LATENCY: It is mainly specified as some serious problem to qos which is also known as the delay and if we speak in technical words its the same amount of time taken by a packet from source to destination and if the latency and the bandwidth are defined they are for speeding the network so for instance we can say that a normal average person can hear a call upto 250 ms approx and 200 ms in sensitive person ear so if the call doesnt return in that range the caller is going to be disappointed. JITTER: It also refers to the same problem but for connectionless or wireless so which is also called as a delay which must be a serious and most inappropriate but business customers such as for company which is dealing with important calls so in this here if we see the database server is connected to some system and the employees are storing some information to the database systems and in between there are calls to handled and the calls doesnt seems to go through the cloud of the similar database server so we can find the disturbance which are caused by the latency and jitter so in order to watch and control the traffic we must maintain the jitter in control and the specification for this is it must be less than 100 ms for the communication less than 100 ms for normal database because if the jitter took place a bit slow in voice band it doesnt have a problem but if it takes under the packet series then it might be some kind of serious issue so in order to reduce this we must all keep the j itter in control. bandwidth refers to number of bits per second that can reasonably be expected to be successfully delivered across same medium Compression: Either the payloads or the headers compressed by reducing the total number of bits required to transmit the data. Call Admission control: reduces all the overall load of the network by denying any new incoming voice and video calls. Queuing: Qos refers to a broad collection networking technologies and techniques. The goal of Qos is to provide guarantee on the ability of a network to deliver predictable results. Qos involves prioritization of a network, Qos is a method to guarantee the bandwidth relationship between individual or application or protocols. Qos refers to the capability of a network to provide a better service to selected network traffic over various underlying technologies including frame relay,(Cisco systems Inc. 1999). There are seven Qos mechanisms and tools that are used to implement Qos in a computer network. Ø Congestion management Ø Congestion avoidance Ø Control admission control Ø Shaping and policing Ø Bandwidth reservation Ø Link efficiency Ø Classification and marking 1.1.3 Aim of Qos is to provide a dedicated bandwidth sufficient to deliver for the service of the applications by controlling latency and jitter, and by reducing data loss. Network characteristics managed by quality of service. Category of quality of service mechanisms: 1) Admission control 2) Traffic control 1.2.1 Admission control: Gives the information of number of users and the applications used to network resources it allows only specific users and resources which can be used in a network segment (subnet). 1.2.2 Traffic control: It controls and regulates the data flow by classifying and marking the packets based on priority and by stopping traffic, service class assigned to a traffic flow which evaluates the quality of service treatment, the traffic receives. 1.2.3 Call admission control: It provides the overall quality for all the networks, it controls the voice disturbance from the voice traffic, and video from the other video traffic 1.3.2 Classification and marking: For defining a quality of service identifying the traffic is the first case involved in the procedure which is treated either differently or preferentially which is done by classification and marking. 1.3.3 Bandwidth reservation: Bandwidth reservation provides guarantee to the bandwidth, i.e., bandwidth is provided whenever needed without reserving it for a specific application or flow in a network. 1.3.4 Shaping and policing: The significant issues related to quality of service in a network are solved by traffic shaping , the delay and loss in a network are solved by traffic shaping which is called as(egress blocking)The data which is sent or received are measured by traffic shaping and traffic policing . traffic policing in a network is used to remove all the excess packets which helps to overcome the policed rate. The excess packets are again en-queued by shaping. Both shaping and policing prevent the traffic from exceeding the bit rate defined. Link efficiency: Link efficiency is used increase the quality of service of a network,particularly if the given note continuously increase the bandwidth rate on a network which causes the sudden change in behaviour of the network. Which slows down data applications significantly.if the load exceeds the given bandwidth for a period of time the application slows down completely or even stops down ata particular point because of the continuous queues which can be avoided by using the link efficiency. 1.3.6 Congestion management: Whenever queuing occurs in a network congestion management gives the ability to rearrange the packets. 1.3.7 Congestion avoidance: Congestion avoidance tools are used to avoid congestion. It enables queue to avoid congestion. Whenever the rate of transmission load and offer load exceeds the line rate send by various senders.Queues are formed which may cause congestion. The queue are managed by congestion avoidance tool by dropping the packets randomly which are selective which reduces the congestion level. WHY DO WE NEED QOS Each and every packet will be given equal access to resources when we not consider the QoS policies. We cannot give voice priority if we cannot tell a voice packet from a data packet. In order to utilize its network resources efficiently for a company, so to support those traffic streams it must identify which network traffic is critical traffic and allocate appropriate resources to support those traffic streams. Otherwise, the result could be intermittent with voice quality complaints. Applications like voice and video are delay and jitter sensitive. Voice packet will be given first priority access to the interface queue, when we use a good QoS policy. For example, both FTP and an voice packet arrive at the same time at an outbound router interface. When we not consider the QoS policies the voice packet may need to wait in the queue until the FTP packet has been processed out the interface. This may results delay of unacceptable amount of delay into the voice path which will depends upon the interface speed. Traffic flow with out qos (global knowledge,whitepapers,[2],author:gardiner2008) The voice packet could be given priority first over the FTP packet when we use QoS configuration. The FTP packet may be fragmented to make sure that the voice packet does not show any excessive delay, if the interface speed is less than T. QoS Evolution The main reason for the wide transformation of best-effort models to more complex differentiated services models is by privately owned enterprise and service providers networks, the meaning that the network gives different applications differing levels of service. 2.6.1 Congestion Management (Queuing): QoS queuing tools provide you with a variety of queuing methods. Queuing tools define a number of queues. The queuing tools are as follows: a. Priority Queuing(PQ) b. Custom Queuing(CQ) c. Weighted Fair Queuing(WFQ) d. Class-Based Weighted Fair Queing(CBWFQ) e. Low Latency Queuing(LLQ) f. Modified Deficit Round-Robin(MDRR) a. Priority Queuing: Priority Queuings most distinctive feature is its scheduler. PQ schedules traffic such that the higher-priority queues always get serviced, with the side affect of starving the lower-priority queues. With a maximum of four queues, called High, Normal, and Low, the complete logic of the scheduler can be easily represented, as shown in figure. (Cisco systems, 1999) b. Custom Queuing: As with most queuing tools, the most interesting part of the tool is the scheduler. The CQ scheduler reserves an approximate percentage of overall link bandwidth to each queue. CQ approximates the bandwidth percentages, as opposed to meeting an exact percentage, due to the simple operation of the CQ scheduler. The CQ scheduler performs round-robin service on each queue, beginning with queue 1. CQ takes packets from the queue, until the total byte count specified for the queue has been met or exceeded. After the queue has been serviced for that many bytes, or the queue does not have any more packets, CQ moves on to the next queue, and repeats the process. (Morgan, 1991) c. Weighted Fair Queuing: Weighted Fair Queuing differs from PQ and CQ in several significant ways. The first and most obvious difference is that WFQ does not allow classification options to be configured. WFQ classifies packets based on flows. A flow consists of all packets that have the same source and destination IP address, and the same source and destination port numbers. So, no explicit matching is configured. The other large difference between WFQ versus PQ and CQ is the scheduler, which simply favors low-volume, higher-precedence flows over large-volume, lower-precedence flows. Also because WFQ is flow based, and each flow uses a different queue, the number of queues become rather large up to a maximum of 4096 queues per interface. And although WFQ uses tail drop, it really uses a slightly modified tail-drop scheme- yet another difference. (Cisco systems Inc, 1999) d. Class-Based WFQ: CBWFQ is most like CQ, in that it can be used to reserve minimum bandwidth for each queue. It does differ from CQ in that you can configure the actual percentage of traffic, rather than a byte count. CBWFQ is like WFQ in that CBWFQ can actually use WFQ inside one particular queue, but it differs from WFQ in that it does not keep up with flows for all the traffic. e. Low Latency Queuing (LLQ): LLQ combines the bandwidth reservation feature of CBWFQ with a PQ-like high priority queue, called as Low Latency Queue, which allows delay-sensitive traffic to spend little time in the queue. But first, this section begins with WFQ, which uses a completely different scheduler. Table 2: Comparison of Queuing Tools. (Odom W, et al, 2005) Tool Maximum Number of Queues Classification Capabilities Queue Service Algorithm/ End Result of Algorithm PriorityQueuing (PQ) 4 IP ACL Input interface Fragments Strict service; always serves higher-priority queue over lower queue. Custom Queuing (CQ) 16 IP ACL Input interface Fragments Serves a configured number of bytes per queue, per round-robin pass through the queues. Result: Rough percentage of the bandwidth given to each queue under load. Weighted Fair Queuing (WFQ) 4096 Automatic, based on flows, (Flow identified by source/destination address and port numbers, plus protocol type.) Each flow uses a different queue, Queues with lower volume and higher IP precedence get more service; high volume, low precedence flows get less service. Class-Based Weighted Fair Queuing (CBWFQ) 64 IP ACL NBAR Same as CB marking Service algorithm not published; results in set percentage bandwidth for each queue under load. Low Latency Queuing (LLQ) N/A Same as CBWFQ LLQ is a variant of CBWFQ, which makes some queues priority queues, always getting served next if a packet is waiting in that queue. It also polices traffic. Modified Deficit Round-Robin (MDRR) 8 IP precedence Similar to CQ, but each queue gets an exact percentage of bandwidth. Supports LLQ mechanism as well.